A Greenland shark. (NOAA Photo Library / Flickr)

Greenland sharks, also known as sleeper sharks, grey sharks, or gurry sharks have suddenly gained popularity due to their age being discovered a few months ago. They belong to the family ‘Somniosidae’ and are primarily seen in the Arctic and North Pacific Ocean. They thrive in frigid temperatures and are known to migrate to the coldest areas of the water every season. They are the only known shark species that can survive in Arctic water temperatures all year round.

They also prefer deep areas of the sea as they are found at depths between 0 to 2,200 meters from the surface. Due to their huge size, the sharks swim very slowly and have a sluggish metabolism rate, earning them the nickname of sleeper shark. The longest they grow is up to 4 meters. Though currently unknown, if we were to guess we would say that sharks probably have a lifespan similar to our own – around 70 to 100 years.

How old is the Greenland Shark?

Researchers knew for a long time that these sharks were very old, but were unable to figure out the exact age. For certain species of fish, scientists can examine ear bones that have patterns of concentric rings around them. These rings can be counted like the rings in a tree to determine age.

Another method is to use calcified tissue on backbones of fishes like the Great White (Shark). Finally, if none of these methods is viable, scientists count growth rings on the fin spines and vertebrae. Unfortunately, Greenland sharks are extremely soft and have no hard body parts for any tissue deposition. For the longest time researchers were perplexed by the question of estimating the shark’s age.

Concurrently, a physicist by the name of Jan Heinemeier was conducting a research of his own. He figured that there was a way to age animals by the proteins found in the tissue of their eye lens. This protein is very stable and unlike regular protein doesn’t go through any kind of replenishment through the lifetime of an animal. They are present and encased within the eye since birth. He noted that this method would prove extremely useful in the field of forensics but was unaware of researchers’ conundrum surrounding the shark’s age. Heinemeier also helped crack a murder mystery in Germany using results from his study.

Eventually, Heinemeier was contacted by researchers John Steffensen and Julius Nielsen who were already working on figuring out the shark’s age. They collected eye lenses of 28 sharks over a period of 5 years that were caught unintentionally while catching other target fishes. They procured authorization from the Government of Greenland to conduct the research and immediately euthanized sharks after they were caught so as to reduce the pain of death.

These sharks have a unique eye structure wherein the lens keeps growing as the fish grows. Layers of tissue keep getting added to the lens; while scientists can’t count these layers as they would tree rings, they can keep scraping the layers to get to the centre of the lens. Scientists study this eye lens nucleus to estimate the age of the fish.

They concluded that the youngest of these sharks had been alive for at least 272 years or as high as 512 years. While this method isn’t very accurate it does give you a broad range to work with. With a margin of error of 120 years, they concluded that she is probably 400 years old. Even considering just the minimum, she’s still the oldest known vertebrate on Earth. Greenland sharks grow only 1 cm a year and can grow up to 6 meters in length. Given their slow rate of growth they only reach sexual maturity when they are more than 4 meters long, which happens at about 150 years of age.

The reason they live so long is that they grow slowly. They live in waters just a little above freezing which makes their tissues cold. Cold tissues slow down the chemical reactions within the fish including metabolic rates. If the fish’s metabolic rate is lower, their ageing process is slowed down too.

What’s next for the sharks?

While their extreme longevity may be fascinating to some, it is a cause of concern for environmental biologists. They are listed as a near-threatened species of shark. Because they only mature every 150 years, (and) their rate of reproduction is quite slow. However, they are caught by humans at a much faster rate. Since the early 20th century, at least 30,000 were hunted for their liver oil.

People of Iceland still hunt the fish for its meat where it’s being used in Hákari production. Hákari is a traditional Icelandic dish made of fermented fish. By itself, the shark meat is fatal to humans due to high amounts of trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) present in its tissue. TMAO helps sharks survive the frigid water temperatures. It affects humans in a way that is similar to extreme intoxication. The meat is, therefore, dried and then fermented to drain out the poisonous fluids present in its tissue to make it safe for humans.

Greenland shark meat being fermented. (Chris 73 / Wikimedia Commons)

Not all of the hunting is intentional though, a huge amount of sharks are also caught in nets as bycatch while looking for other fish. This is how the researchers were able to study the sharks’ age without causing any more deaths. Global warming is also another cause of concern for the fish. Since they thrive particularly in colder regions like near the Arctic, we need to protect the environment so that it doesn’t become any warmer than it already has. As the environment becomes warmer, the water temperature rises which would make the waters unbearable for the fish.

To preserve the longevity of the shark, we should learn ways to conserve our endangered species and be more aware and critical of actions that cause global warming.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Goblin Shark: The Alien Shark of the Deep Sea, with a Slingshot Mouth“.

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Georgia Guidestones. (Dina Eric / Flickr)

Georgia Guidestones is a monument made of granite, and they lie in a land site situated in Georgia, USA. Built in 1980, it is approximately 19’ 3” tall. It is also generally dubbed as the ‘American Stonehenge’. The arrangement of the Guidestones is such that they could function as a compass, calendar, and clock in the event humanity had to be restarted from scratch. It would also explain why the structure is built so sturdily if it is meant to endure the end of the world. There is one slab in the centre with 4 more around it, and a capstone tablet lies on top of all the 5 slabs. Engraved on each of the 5 standing slabs, there are a set of messages that contain 10 guidelines in eight languages of the modern world.

The story of how the structure came to be is a little mystifying. In June of 1979, a man approached a granite memorial manufacturing company and ordered for the construction of the structure. The man, who was using a pseudonym, called himself Robert C. Christian and stated that he had come “on behalf of a small group of loyal Americans”. Wanting to remain anonymous even while making the payment, he explained that the group of Americans he was representing had been planning the structure for over 20 years.

Georgia Guidestones from a different angle. (Jason Horne / Flickr)

Georgia guidestones text

The 5 slabs have the same 10 guidelines written on it in 8 different languages; going clockwise around the structure the languages are English, Spanish, Swahili, Hindi, Hebrew, Arabic, Chinese, and Russian. The 10 guidelines are supposed to express a New Age ideology and they are as follows verbatim in English:

• Maintain humanity under 500,000,000 in perpetual balance with nature.
• Guide reproduction wisely — improving fitness and diversity.
• Unite humanity with a living new language.
• Rule passion — faith — tradition — and all things with tempered reason.
• Protect people and nations with fair laws and just courts.
• Let all nations rule internally resolving external disputes in a world court.
• Avoid petty laws and useless officials.
• Balance personal rights with social duties.
• Prize truth — beauty — love — seeking harmony with the infinite.
• Be not a cancer on the earth — Leave room for nature — Leave room for nature.

The only other thing that provides some clue to this mysterious structure is an additional tablet standing a little away from it that provides historical background and purpose of the structure. This tablet contains information directly related to the structure itself such as the size and weight of the tablets, the languages that are used, and the date of inauguration of the structure. It also contains a brief list of the astronomical features and the sponsors for the structure. The text on this capstone is also suggestive to the existence of a time capsule buried under it. A section specially reserved for filling out dates when the time capsule is buried and removed are not filled out. This might suggest that the capsule may not have been put in there, to begin with.

The structure is very interesting in that, not only does it provide guidelines for humanity to rebuild itself but it also provides astronomical precision to function as a clock, calendar, and compass. The structure is oriented to track the Sun’s progression from East to West throughout the year. The North Star is also visible to stargazers through a hole on one of the slabs. In order to indicate the day of the year, a slim beam of sunlight is focused on the centre slab at exactly 12 pm by drilling a hole through the capstone tablet.

The hole in the Guidestone from where North Star is always visible. (Dina Eric / Flickr)

Doubts and controversies 

As baffling as these guidelines are, the only commonly agreed upon perception is that they describe how to rebuild human civilization in the event of complete devastation. This perception also agrees with the fact that the structure was meant to withhold any kind of devastation or natural disaster. Also given the structure’s astronomical precision, the perception of rebuilding a new human civilization is quite convincing.

The structure was vandalized in 2008 with spray paint and graffiti with slogans like “Death to the New World Order” and “I am Isis, Goddess of Love”. Since the vandalism was the first serious act against the structure, the maintenance department of the construction company called in the FBI to investigate. Supporters of the guidelines, such as followers of Yoko Ono, have called the guidelines a “stirring call to rational thinking”. On the other hand, some people have called them the Ten Commandments of the Antichrist and suggested that structure has a deep Satanic origin.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “The Tjentiste War Memorial: A Commemoration of Those That Died in the Battle of Sutjeska“.

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Lake Hillier, Australia. (Kurioziteti123 / Wikimedia Commons)

Oceans, rivers, and lakes, as a rule, contain salt amongst other minerals with oceans having the highest content of salt since they contain waters from rivers and lakes combined. Rainwater renews the water in rivers; hence the salt is most diluted in them. Lakes, on the other hand, can be both freshwater and salty. When a lake contains an excessive amount of salt, it starts to produce a type of algae that has a reddish-pink hue to it. The lakes with this type of algae are colloquially known as pink lakes due to their colour.

Saline lakes generally have a higher concentration of salt and chemicals than most lakes. Lakes become saline when there isn’t enough water flowing into them or the water flowing into it is unable to drain into the sea, the remaining water then goes through the natural evaporation cycle thus increasing the concentration of salt. When lakes reach saturation or near saturation point of salt, they are termed as brine lakes. Brine lakes have extremely high salt concentrations of 40%, which is even higher than the ocean. They exist due to very high evaporation rates in dry climates. Saline and brine lakes have a very unique flora and fauna that can only survive in such high salt concentrations. 

Pink lakes in Australia

In Australia, there are 3 pink lakes existing due to this condition. Hutt Lagoon lies north of the Hutt River in Western Australia. There are tourism road trips that take you from Port Gregory to Kalbarri, on which you can view the Hutt Lagoon. It can also be seen from flights. It is an excellent place for salt production. The salt and gypsum produced here have received commendable recognition.

Hutt Lagoon. (Dan Nevill / Flickr)

Spencer Lake lies in the Goldfields-Esperance region of Western Australia. It had not been pink for a decade until 2017, and it is speculated the reason for this was due to the construction of a railway and a highway. Lake Hillier also lies in the Goldfields-Esperance region and is often confused with Spencer Lake. It is noted that the lake appears a bright bubble-gum pink from flights, but up close near the shoreline it only has a light pink hue.

Bird’s eye view of lake Hillier. (Aussie Oc / Wikimedia Commons)

Pink lake in Senegal

In Senegal, Africa, the Lake Retba also exist under similar conditions of high salinity and a pink hue. Although, due to seasonal variation, the pink hue is majorly visible during the summer season and not as much during the monsoons. The flora and fauna here are different than in the Australian lakes, however; the fish here have evolved to live in saline waters but are much smaller than average due to dwarfism.

Lake Retba. (Antonin Rémond / Flickr)

Other pink lakes around the world

Apart from these, there are other pink lakes that exist due to similar conditions. There’s another one in Australia called Quairading Pink Lake and a Field of Lakes which has multiple pools of pink water with varying shades of pink. There is also the Salina de Torrevieja in Spain and the Masazirgol in Azerbaijan. Although, the Dusty Rose lake in Canada is pink not because of high salinity but because of the rock flour that pours into the lake from surrounding glaciers.

Salina de Torrevieja, Spain. (Alberto Casanova / Flickr)

The speciality of Lake Retba in Senegal

Considered a high-ranking contender in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2005, the pink-coloured Lac Rose or Lake Retba in Senegal is a bit different from most of the other pink lakes in the world. Its high salt content makes it almost impossible for living creatures to drown in it, thus making it a lot like the infamous Dead Sea of Jordan. People can float in it but there are a host of activities that a tourist needs to undertake just to have a dip in the pink lake.

The Senegalese lake is also known for its salt collection activity, which in itself is an interesting task. Fishermen, armed with spades, make use of narrow canoes to bring back huge chunks of salt from under the water body. They position themselves in the middle of the lake and start digging for salt, which they then collect in large baskets and bring them back to their boats. The women folk then wade through the shallow waters to collect these chunks from the canoes to bring them ashore. Here the salt is later treated with iodine and processed further before it is sent out into the West African markets.

A worker harvesting salt from Lake Retba. (Anthea Spivey / Wikimedia Commons)

One thing that sets the salt collecting activity in Lake Retba apart from the regular ones is the use of shea butter. Fishermen and women both apply shea butter on their exposed skin parts to protect themselves from the dangerous effects of the high salt content. In the absence of shea butter, the salt in the lake has the potential to cut open the skin or make wounds to the exposed areas.

Thieboudienne. (T.K. Naliaka / Wikimedia Commons)

But if there is one thing that people really love about Lake Retba, it is a traditional delicacy prepared from local fish. Called thieboudienne, it is a dish prepared with a mix of rice, tomato sauce and fish, which Senegalese fishermen preserve using salt, obtained especially from Lake Retba. The stew is a very popular dish in the country and Lake Retba provides for the continuous supply of salt for the particular food item.

The science behind the colour

The science behind the pink coloured lakes is actually quite complex. The salt content of the lakes has to be higher than that of the sea, and the temperature has to be high enough, and perfect light conditions have to be met. The high content of salt in the lakes makes it a breeding ground for a beta-carotene producing algae, also scientifically called Dunaliella Salina, that thrives in salty environments. 

Beta-carotene is the same chemical that is found in carrots, and that gives it its orange colour The chemical is actually a reddish-pink colour, but the combination of it being mixed with water and the right light conditions give the lakes a pink hue. Carrots only contain 0.3% of beta-carotene, whereas these algae contain up to 14% of it. This chemical also coats the chlorophyll that is found in the algae, thus protecting it from the extreme heat conditions in these arid regions. 

The environmental conditions are so vital to the colour of the lake that any external changes can affect it. One such example is Spencer Lake; since the construction of the Southcoast highway, the lake lost its connections with Lake Warden which supplied the lake with salty water. Once the connection was lost, the algae began to perish, thus making the lake lose its pink hue.

Salt ponds at South Bay, San Francisco. (Doc Searls / Flickr)

Importance of salt lakes

Salt lakes prove to be an excellent place for salt production and help manufacture table salt which is an important constituent of our diets. Even the climate that is created by the evaporation cycle around these lakes is supposed to be one of the healthiest. In fact, the microclimate that surrounds the lake in Spain is considered to be the healthiest in all of Europe by the World Health Organization (WHO). Many of these lakes are also rich in minerals with healing properties for skin and lung disease patients. These salt lakes are also heavily laden with brine shrimp, which are used by fish farmers as feed for the fish and in the aquarium fish market. 

Most importantly, these lakes also help bring in tourism trade due to their uniqueness. The elaborate conditions for the lake’s existence are not easy to replicate elsewhere, and hence draw tourists from all over the world. There are special road trip tours as well as flight tours that help you see these mythical-looking natural wonders.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “The Lonar Lake: An Astronomical Marvel“.

Recommended Visit:
1. Lake Hillier | Western Australia
2. Lake Retba | Senegal, West Africa 
3. Salina de Torrevieja | Spain 
4. Masazirgol | Azerbaijan

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Peacock clock at Hermitage Museum. (Antonio Zugaldia / Flickr)

The Hermitage Museum of Saint Petersburg, Russia is not only the second-largest art museum in the world but it also houses the only last 18th Century automaton in a fully functioning condition. The museum was founded in 1764 when Catherine the Great, the Empress of Russia, purchased enough paintings from a Berlin merchant to open a gallery.

One of the pieces, the Peacock Clock designed by James Cox, is a magnificent work of 18th century automaton art in this museum. The clock features 3 life-sized mechanical birds that move and act like real birds. There’s a peacock, a cockerel, and an owl inside a cage that are most prominent among other forest animals and elements like a squirrel, tree branches, and mushrooms.

The peacock clock from the front. (Michael Shilyaev / Wikimedia Commons)

How does the peacock clock work?

The designer of the Peacock Clock, James Cox, was a jeweller and goldsmith in the second half of the 18th century who created so many automatons of birds and animals that he eventually opened up his own museum called Spring Gardens (in London). To fund pieces for the museum, Cox organized lotteries in Dublin and London. The peacock that he created for his museum was slightly different; it was perched on an oak stump that had 2 snakes entwined on it.

Around the same time, Catherine the Great’s Hermitage (Museum) was collecting exhibits for the museum. When James Cox’s creations were brought to her attention, she was smitten. She commissioned a gigantic automaton clock for the Hermitage Museum. In order to make the piece in the quickest time frame using the least amount of finances possible, Cox modified the existing peacock structure from his earlier lottery. The clock is used to represent the end of night and start of a day and hence puts up a very dramatic show. The owl in the cage turns its head to some eerie chime music, after which the peacock moves its tail very gracefully to display its gilded fan of feathers. Finally, the cockerel crows to signify the end of the show. The dial of the clock is displayed covertly on the head of a mushroom. Cox used the assistance of a German craft smith who manufactured the clock in London. It was them shipped to Russia in pieces and set to work by a Russian mechanic called Ivan Kuliblin.

Peacock clock up close. (Michael Shilyaev / Wikimedia Commons)

The Hermitage Museum

Apart from the Peacock Clock, the Hermitage museum also contains other noteworthy pieces of art and culture. Even though the museum was founded in 1764, it was only opened to the public after more than 80 years in 1852. The museum now showcases only a fraction of more than 3 million pieces that it has, and is world-renowned for its largest collection of paintings. The collection is spread over 6 buildings, out of which only 5 are open to the public: the Winter Palace, the Small Hermitage, the Old Hermitage, the New Hermitage, and the Hermitage Theatre.

The work here was purchased by Catherine the Great from a Berlin merchant who organized paintings from notable painters like Rembrandt, Peter Rubens, Jacob Jordaens, Anthony Van Dyk, and Raphael among others. A majority of the paintings from the original collection are still intact and are at display at the Hermitage. Interestingly, in 1991 it was revealed that the Hermitage held paintings that were looted by the Red Army in Germany. It was only 3 years later that they revealed a collection of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings including those by Van Gogh, Degas, and Renoir.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Leonardo’s Robot: Leonardo da Vinci’s Mechanical Knight and Other Robots“.

Recommended Visit:
Hermitage Museum | Saint Petersburg, Russia

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Vomit Comet: Astronauts experiencing weightlessness on a reduced-gravity aircraft. (NASA)

A Vomit Comet is a type of airplane that helps astronauts experience weightlessness for a short period of time to help them train for their journey into deep space. These planes are generally known as reduced-gravity aircraft and are sometimes also used while making science-fiction movie shots. Although, the reason they are most commonly known as Vomit Comets is due to the experiences of the astronauts during the flight.

These airplanes were first introduced by German engineers Fritz Haber and Heinz Haber, who were brought to the US after the Second World War, as a way to simulate weightlessness as part of Operation Paperclip. Operation Paperclip existed to hire German scientists to give American’s an advantage in the Cold War that followed. Humans have been the most common fliers of the Vomit Comet, but the planes have also been used to experiment on other animals such as cats and pigeons.

How do they work?

The way these planes work is by giving the fliers a sense of feeling in a zero-gravity environment. Although these environments aren’t always zero gravity, they are just micro-gravity where the force of gravity is not zero, but just so small that it’s almost undetectable. An actual micro-gravity environment would require an extensive journey into deep space that is far away enough that the force of gravity is reduced to almost negligible. This journey isn’t impossible but inadvisable, because the few probes that have achieved this have never returned back to Earth.

Inside a zero-gravity aircraft. (Alex Beltyukov collection)

Since it is an expensive and almost impractical event to fly into deep space for testing purposes, scientists have found ways to recreate the same environment on Earth. The NASA Reduced Gravity Program in Houston, Texas provides a weightless environment for space flight testing and training purposes through a reasonable reimbursement funding process. The flight of the plane follows a projectile trajectory, called a parabolic path that is relative to the centre of our planet. On this path, the plane is at free fall at certain points and does not have exertion from any force originating from the ground. This absence of ground reaction force causes the feeling the weightlessness.

The trajectory of zero gravity flight to achieve weightlessness. (NASA)

To go more in detail about the exact science, the precise moment of weightlessness occurs after the plane has climbed the parabolic path, reaches a neutral or ‘zero-lift’ state, before falling back down into its trajectory. During its zero-lift state, the thrust of the plane is reduced and its tip is lowered, causing a 25-second experience of zero gravity during one parabolic flight. In one astronaut training session, they fly anywhere between 40-60 parabolic paths consecutively during which about 60% of the fliers vomit due to airsickness. This common event during weightlessness experiences has earned the plane its notorious nickname of Vomit Comet.

According to research, anxiety is the most important cause of airsickness. Their body realizes a sense of panic which makes it (them) feel ill and hence, they end up (with) projectile vomiting.

NASA’s KC-135A during the reduced-gravity flight. (NASA)

What happened to the Vomit Comet?

After a decade-long journey starting in 1994, the Vomit Comet was retired for use on October 31, 2004. The Vomit Comet has flown more than 140,000 flights in over 8 planes over the Gulf of Mexico. According to the lead test director of NASA’s Reduced Gravity Research Program, even though the plane provided a unique environment to give astronauts the most realistic training, it was getting increasingly harder to maintain the plane and its costs.

The plane was very useful for astronauts-in-training, engineers and scientists to do various testing and research on board. Currently, there are educational programs that let college students participate in the weightlessness experience, and more than 2000 students have flown these flights. This is a great initiative as it helps to prepare the next generation of space explorers.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Sex in Space – Is It Possible? and Why It is Important“.

Register:
Zero-G Weightlessness Classroom

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Church Bell Tower at Lake Reschen. (Sander van der Wel / Flickr)

Lake Reschen, an artificial lake in South Tyrol, Italy, is known for carrying a submerged town at its bed. The only visible part of the submerged town is a steeple of a 14th-century church peeping out above the surface. The steeple can actually be walked towards during winter when the water freezes. The lake is considered the largest in the province due to its capacity of 120 million cubic meters, and its surface area of 6.6 sq. km. makes it the largest in the Alps.

Church Bell Tower during winter. (Sascha Erni / 500px)

Planning for a smaller artificial lake started back in 1920, but in 1939 a new plan for a much bigger and deeper lake was introduced. The newer plan would merge two natural lakes, but it would mean submerging multiple villages. Construction for the newer lake began in 1940 but due to resistance from the locals and the development of Second World War, it was not completed for another decade until 1950.

Construction of Lake Reschen

In July 1939, the Edison Energia Company came up with a better plan for an artificial lake than the one in 1920. This newer plan aimed at a depth of 22 meters, and would merge two existing natural lakes – Reschensee and Mittersee. The plan would allow construction of a dam by creating this artificial lake for supplying electricity in the region. However, this would, unfortunately, submerge multiple existing villages which would include those of Graun, Reschen, Arlung, Piz, and Stockerhofe. Almost a decade later, after intense resistance from the villagers, the company received funding for construction of a dam that would help create the lake.

For the construction of this lake, over 150 homes were destroyed and over 1200 acres of land had to be submerged. An entire village and town with roads, shops, and schools are sitting at the bottom of the lake. At the time, church bell towers were the tallest structures because as a symbol they were supposed to be closest to heaven than any of the structures in the village. The lake was also not made so deep as to submerge the church steeple as well and hence is the only structure still visible over the surface.

Legends and tourism

The lake has attracted a lot of tourists, thanks to its unique focal point. The fact that the steeple is visible from an arm’s length distance during the winter when the lake freezes over is just an added bonus. The lake may have started to receive attention initially due to the church steeple that pokes out, but the area itself is now renowned over the world for activities that take place around it. Tourism agencies have tried to monetize on the lake’s uniqueness by providing fishing, ice-skating, snow-kiting, kite surfing, walking and cycling tours in or around the lake.

Church Bell Tower. (Zairon / Wikimedia Commons)

There are multiple creepy legends about the church bell tower still floating among the locals which get through to the tourists sometimes. The most popular one is the one where the church bells are heard ringing during winters. It is said that these bells are heard during the darkest of hours and the coldest of winters. This is creepy because the very bells of the tower were removed almost 70 years ago when construction for the lake began.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Roopkund Lake: What are Hundreds of Bones Doing Around a Lake in Uttarakhand?“.

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Moscow State University, Russia. (I.s.kopytov / Wikimedia Commons)

Of the 3 towers making up Moscow State University, the one in the centre is the tallest. This tower is the main building of the university and the tallest educational building in the world. The tower was inaugurated on 1 September 1953 and has served as the headquarters for the university since then. It has a gigantic height of 240 meters which is more than twice the height of the Statue of Liberty. Atop the tower sits a spire which in itself is 57 meters high and the spire is topped with a five-pointed star weighing 12 tons.

Moscow State University finishing spire. (Nickolas Titkov / Wikimedia Commons)

This tower is also the highest of the Seven Sisters, which is a nickname given to the 7 tallest Stalinist buildings in Russia. They are noteworthy because the buildings are designed in accordance with Russian Baroque and Gothic styles of architecture combined with the technology of American skyscrapers. The other 6 towers are Hotel Ukraina, Kotelnicheskaya Embankment Apartments, Kudrinskaya Square Building, Hilton Moscow Leningradskaya, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Red Gates Administrative Building.

The Moscow State University tower is to Russians what the Empire State Building is to the Americans. It is a building of immense commendation for them. The university is adorned with statues of notable people, some of them are of students that went to MSU and the one that stands out is the statue of Mikhail Lomonosov, the founder of the university. The main tower of MSU remained the 7th tallest building in the world and the tallest in Europe since its inauguration until 30 years later in 1988 when it got superceded by the MesseTurm tower in Germany. It is also the oldest university in Russia and has inspired designs for many other buildings including the Palace of Science and Culture in Warsaw, Poland.

Radisson Royal Hotel (Hotel Ukraina), one of the seven sisters. (Kirill Vinokurov / Flickr)

The designer of Moscow State University

The entire building was designed by an architect called Lev Rudnev, and it was one of his finest works. He was awarded the Stalin Prize in 1949 for the project. Rudnev was a great practitioner of Stalinist Architecture. This is the type of architecture that was practised in the Soviet Union during the leadership of Joseph Stalin till Nikita Khrushchev declared the end of it.

Rudnev had been earning awards for his creations since he was 26 years old, and finally went on to get his certification for architecture when he was about 30. One of his most notable awards after the Stalin Prize was for a monument called Victims of the Revolution that stands on graves of the victims of the February Revolution in the Field of Mars in Saint-Petersburg. After the Second World War, he also actively took part in reconstructing destroyed cities of Russia. He passed away in 1956, three years after the MSU tower was completed.

Moscow State University at night. (Eldar Vagapov / Flickr)

The premises

The campus life on MSU seems to be quite interesting. The building itself contains over 5000 rooms and has 4 huge towers reserved only for student and faculty housing. The students and faculty are entitled to a theater, museum, swimming pool, salon, and cafeteria in addition to the basics such as a library, police station, post office, laundry, canteen, ATM’s and a bomb shelter. Although, their main library wouldn’t be considered just basic since it’s the largest in Russia with over 5 million books.

Library in the Moscow State University, circa 20th century. (Thomas Taylor Hammond / Wikimedia Commons)

As of the latest update, the university has 39 faculties with a few new ones having been added recently like the Faculty of Physics and Chemistry and the Faculty of Higher School of Television. There are an impressive number of students, staff and faculty at the university. Its 15 research centers are used by 5000 researchers, and there are more than 40,000 undergraduates and 15,000 staff members. The university also hosts 2000 students and researchers once a year. Given these statistics it’s would be of no surprise that the Moscow State University is one of Russia’s most prestigious institutions.

Moscow State University auditorium. (Thomas Taylor Hammond / Wikimedia Commons)

There are few legends surrounding the building as well. It is said that the material needed for construction of the building was prepared by Hitler but was later stolen back to Russia by the Red Army. Another story also mentions that German war prisoners were used for constructing the building and at the end, many of them were walled alive inside the buildings. While we probably won’t find out the authenticity of these legends, we can definitely marvel at its architectural ingenuity.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Nakagin Capsule Tower: A Futuristic Building from the Past, Which Might Just Not See the Future“.

Fact Analysis:
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A family belonging to the Vadoma tribe displaying their feet. (Thfk / Wikimedia Commons)

The vaDoma people, also known as the Bantwana tribe, live in the Kanyemba region of Northern Zimbabwe. The region is located around the basin of the Mwazamutunda River. They speak in the Dema language, which is very similar to another dominant language of the region and hence easily discernable.

The tribe is very famous for their ostrich-foot syndrome, which is more scientifically known as ectrodactyly. It’s a genetic defect in which the middle 3 toes of a person are absent, and the remaining two toes at the outer edges are turned in. This condition allows them to walk but with some difficulty, whereas it’s extremely difficult for them to run. The condition, however, helps them to climb trees. This is especially useful since they follow a traditional hunter-gatherer way of living, similar to the San People living in Tsholotsho Area in Zimbabwe. They also can’t wear shoes on their feet.

The ostrich foot syndrome

A member of the Vadoma tribe. (Thfk / Wikimedia Commons)

The vaDoma are the only traditional hunter-gatherers who still have ectrodactyly existing among the tribe through genetic inheritance. Since they mostly remain isolated and are only allowed to marry within their community, the condition exists only within a small portion of their community. However, it is noticed that the ectrodactyly people within vaDoma community are not looked down on, and are not handicapped. They are accepted by members of their community and remain well-integrated into the tribe.

The vaDoma people live under the chieftainship of Chief Chapoto, who lives in the mountains surviving primarily on a nomadic lifestyle of hunting, fishing, honey hunting, and gathering wild fruits and roots. Even though they may call their lifestyle that of hunting, recent change of definitions means that their lifestyle actually consists of poaching and not hunting since they don’t have a license to hunt. Due to this, the vaDoma people have been threatened and largely criticized. They also have little access to fertile land because of their own resistance, and they are now Zimbabwe’s only non-agricultural society, with stereotypes naming them ‘stone age cave-dwellers’. Due to this, a lot in the community have abandoned their hunter-gatherer lifestyle.

VaDoma people are quite shy by nature; while talking they don’t look you straight in the eye, and instead, stare at the ground. They are also often harassed by game rangers and hence run away from people. They also don’t like wearing textile fabrics; in fact, children as young as 10 years old don’t wear any clothing. They have kept little contact with the rest of their community, and have changed their lifestyle to semi-foragers. To protect themselves from the weather and predators, they have built houses on wooden platforms and have shelters with thatching.

Future of the vaDoma

There are also many folk tales that exist among the tribe regarding their ostrich feet. One such mythology says that their ancestors emerged from a Baobab tree, and as soon as they emerged they were walking upright and immediately moved on to their routine of hunting and gathering fruits of the land. The elders of the community also believe that their ancestors were like birds that came from the stars. Apparently, they mixed their DNA with women on Earth and the resulting offspring were the vaDoma people. There are also some persistent rumors that the vaDoma people are capable of disappearing in the forest and performing magic.

Vadoma people. (Thfk / Wikimedia Commons)

There is a primary and secondary school, and a clinic provided for the Doma, but their intense trust in their own ways of life has prevented from using these facilities. In fact, the land that they live on is also very rich and can be used for farming, but only if they learnt to use the right skills and equipment. Due to their dislike for change, their future seems bleak.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “The Extraordinary Case of Wang the Human Unicorn“.

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CSCL Globe at Port of Felixstowe, UK. (Keith / Flickr)

A container ship called MV CSCL Globe had the privilege of holding the record for the largest container ship in the world but only for a short number of days. It was manufactured by a South Korean company called Hyundai Heavy Industries and operated by a company in China called China Shipping Container Lines (CSCL) which was later taken over by COSCO Shipping Development Company. The home port of this ship is in Hong Kong.

The CSCL Globe was the first of five identical ships that were created for Asia-Europe trade routes. It cost CSCL USD 700 million to make all 5 of them.

CSCL Globe in Hamburg, Germany. (Walter Rademacher / Wikimedia Commons)

CSCL Globe: Route of the ship

Considering dimensions, this ship is more than 400 meters long, 58.6 meters wide and 73 meters tall. The length of this ship can be equated to a little more than 4 football pitches. The ship also weighs more than 186,000 tonnes. The engine of the ship, which is over 17 meters high, has also broken a world record of being the largest engine ever built. Just for clarity, this record is in terms of size and not power.

The CSCL Globe started her journey in Qingdao, China on 3rd December 2014. Her first stop was a port in England called Felixstowe. On her route, she also stopped at ports in Singapore, Malaysia, Egypt, UK, Germany, and Belgium. Her last stop was back at Ningbo in China on February 25, 2015. It is interesting to note that only 28 people work aboard the ship. They usually spend most of their time in the sauna or the gym, sometimes going up to the crates to make sure everything is alright. It takes about 1 day to load and unload the cargo, and thankfully the crew can leave the task up to the port duty.

CSCL Globe. (Frank Schwichtenberg / Wikimedia Commons)

The capacity of the CSCL Globe

Construction of the ship started in May 2014; by October the ship had completed its sea tests and was ready to launch in November 2014. At the time of its launch, it was certainly the largest container ship in the world that could hold 19,100 standard containers of 20 ft length. The CSCL Globe was able to hold this record only for the next two months till January 2015 when the MSC Oscar container ship was launched. It could hold 19,224 containers. It is important to note that the CSCL Globe itself had superceded the Triple – E which could carry only 18,200 containers.

MSC Oscar container ship. (Frans Berkelaar / Wikimedia Commons)

However, if we compare the numbers from 18 years ago in 1996 which is when the first container ship was launched, we’d be surprised to see a jump of almost triple the capacity. The ship in 1996 could only carry 6000 containers. Although, there is an ongoing debate about the growth in capacity of these ships. The shipping lanes in Europe and Asia are the only ones that can accommodate container ships with a capacity of 18,000 to 20,000 containers. The lanes in America can’t handle these yet. Ships beyond 22,000 containers will definitely create a problem for both Europe and America. It’s important to ask the question, when is the largest shipping container going to be large enough to meet all our growing needs.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Seawise Giant: The Enormous Vessel That Remains the Biggest Man-Made Ship Ever Built“.

Fact Analysis:
STSTW Media strives to deliver accurate information through careful research. However, things can go wrong. If you find the above article inaccurate or biased, please let us know at [email protected].

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The Terracotta army. (Xiquinho Silva / Flickr)

Over 40 years ago, in March 1974, a group of farmers in China discovered a set of life-size statues made out of earthenware called the Terracotta army, which represented the army of Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor of China. The statues were discovered by the farmers in Xi’an city of Shaanxi province when they were digging a water well close to the Emperor’s tomb at Mount Li. It is said that the First Emperor had chosen Mount Li as his favored location to be buried at. He believed the location had good terrain as it was brimming with jade and gold mines.

Why the Terracotta army was built?

Similar to the Egyptians, the Chinese too have a belief that once someone dies their tomb is filled with gifts and items they would need for their journey and life after death. This Terracotta army was buried with the first emperor for a similar reason of protecting him in his afterlife.

Terracotta warriors. (Peter Griffin / publicdomainpictures.net)

Terracotta Army in China

When the discovery of the farmers was made public, a group of Chinese archaeologists became increasingly interested in the site. Their investigation revealed the largest group of pottery statues ever found. The set of statues that were found were just the tip of the iceberg. The entire underground area supposedly measures 98 sq. kms. It is also estimated that there were 3 pits that held these statues and have more than 8000 soldiers, a combined 650 chariots and horses. The statues there have been constructed in accordance with their role in the army. For instance, generals were the tallest whereas lower-ranking officials were shorter.

Park Geun-hye, former president of South Korea looking at the Terracotta Warriors. (Republic of Korea / Flickr)

Construction of the army

The earthenware statues were made to replicate the original army. The statues included those of chariots, horses, archers, soldiers and their different ranks like armored soldiers, unarmored infantry, cavalry men, drivers of chariots, spear-carrying charioteers, and kneeling archers amongst many more. It is interesting to note that these army figures were manufactured in workshops using the good old assembly line method. Specific parts of the body like the head, arms, legs, and torso were created separately and then assembled. The tough work of the laborers and local craftsmen is visible in the splendor that they created. They used at least 10 different molds to create the faces, upon which clay was added to make each face unique.

A terracotta soldier with his horse. (shankar s. / Flickr)

A lot of effort was taken to not only make the statues but also place them in the tomb. The statues weren’t just placed haphazardly instead they were placed in the precise military formation in accordance with rank and duty as a real army. In fact, the statues wore real armor and held real weapons to give them a more realistic feel. Unfortunately, a lot of these weapons were looted a little after the army was created. Other weapons seem to have decayed, even though they were coated with a chemical before burial that would protect them from ruin. Some weapons also have engravings on them displaying their date of usage before burial. The army had also been brightly painted to add to the realism. Just like the weapons, the paint too had faded away and just hints of it remain today.

A group of terracotta soldiers. (Robin Chen / Wikimedia Commons)

Attractions linked to the army

Multiple museums, consisting of an enclosed roof structure, have been constructed over the pits of the soldiers. The museum over Pit 1 is over 14260 square meters and was opened to the public in 1979. Whereas the newer museum over Pit 2 is 6,000 sq meters and was opened to the public in 1994. Recently a mini version of the Terracotta army was unearthed from a 2100-year-old pit in China. Statues in this set are as small as 20 cm and aren’t comparable to the original Terracotta army. It is believed to have been built as a toy set for a young prince and has around 500 pieces in its set. Impressively though, the statues in the mini set are arranged just as precisely as the original one.

 Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Traditional Yaodong, Shaanxi Province: The Cave Dwellings in Which Many Chinese People Still Live“.

Fact Analysis:
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A warning sign near Area 51. (X51 / Flickr)

About 80 miles from Las Vegas, on the outskirts of Nevada is a top-secret United States Air Force military base, dubbed as Area 51 that has been active since the Second World War. During the war, the ground was used for training and testing machine guns. A decade after the war saw President Eisenhower approving a secret area of land meant to develop and test stealth aeroplanes as part of a defence system in light of the events at Pearl Harbor.

The territory has been managed by the Edwards Air Force base in California. At the centre of the base sits a large military airfield. This airfield had to later be expanded as technologically advanced aeroplanes were being built. It wasn’t until 2013 that the United States government officially acknowledged the area’s existence in an almost completely unredacted version of an older CIA report from 1994.

Security measures at Area 51

Satellite photo of Area 51. (NASA WorldWind)

Since the territory had been sanctioned by the US Government to carry out top-secret missions, it is of no surprise that the security measures here would be top-notch. In fact, not only are the security measures tight, they have actually gone out of their way to keep the area inaccessible to the common people.

For starters, the entrance is protected by a boom gate, which is a bar that moves horizontally to prevent entry and can only be accessed from a single point of control. There is no fencing around the property, but there are signs that say trespassers will be fined and that photography isn’t allowed. The security guard has been given the freedom to use deadly measures with persistent trespassers. Right above the boom gate are multiple security cameras that keep a lookout from all angles 24 hours a day. There are also motion detectors around the perimeter of the area that can discern even the slightest movement.

Boom gate to area 51. (Simon Johansson / Wikimedia Commons)

They have tight security not just at the ground level of the base, but also in the airspace above it. Pilots who accidentally fly into the buffer zone of restricted airspace are subjected to punishment from their commanders, although the punishment is quite lenient. Whereas, the punishment for pilots who knowingly fly through the restricted airspace is much harsher. They can be summoned in the court, face a dishonourable discharge from their position, subjected to time in prison, or even a combination of these. Helicopters also help keep a lookout on trespassers every now and then.

Area 51: Experiments and theories

One of the plausible reasons people thought they saw UFOs could be because some of the aircraft being tested by the US military were way beyond their time. For example, Commercial grade aeroplanes were only capable of flying up to 20,000 ft and it was believed back then that aeroplanes couldn’t go above 40,000 feet. 

Lockheed U-2. (Sgt. Rose Reynolds / U.S. Air Force)

Despite the US government’s efforts to keep the development and testing of new aeroplanes a secret, some projects were inevitably known to the public. The U-2 Lockheed Reconnaissance Aircraft was one the secret projects started back in the 1950s. It was capable of flying at heights of 20,000 meters and also flew 160 km per hour faster than other aeroplanes As the Soviet Union’s missile technology began improving, there emerged a need for better aeroplanes than the U-2. The U-2 was succeeded by the Suntan which could fly at a whopping 3,200 km per hour. The only issue with this plane was the type of fuel the government needed to procure. It used liquid hydrogen and would have been too expensive for long-term use.

A-12 Oxcart. (U.S.Air Force)

The A-12 Oxcart was the world’s first titanium plane before it got discontinued in 1968. It flew at a speed of 3,700 km per hour and heights of 25,000 meters. Because of its speed, the aeroplane would appear in and out of clouds rather quickly and at much higher altitudes than commercial airlines. This quick disappearance act made commercial airline pilots think they were looking at a UFO. This plane was also kept out of speed competitions since it had to be kept a secret. Since the aircraft flew at such high speeds, it was bound to get heated up quickly. Hence, the plane used a special kind of fuel (called JP-7) that could withstand very high temperatures; in fact, it doesn’t burn even when you throw a lit matchstick into it. This fuel also helped act as an internal coolant.

The Oxcart was then succeeded by the SR-71 Blackbird. This was one of the fastest air-breathing manned aircraft until it retired in 1998. It flew at speeds similar to the Oxcart but could attain a massive altitude of 27,400 meters. Other aeroplanes like the Tacit Blue, Have Blue and the Bird of Prey were some of the first attempts at stealth aircraft. The Bird of Prey was actually an experimental aircraft that was made with one single piece of structure put together using 3D technology.

Area 51: Tourist attraction

The Area used to be called by various names before the name Area 51 was chosen for it. Of the many different names it was given over time, Paradise Ranch stands out. This name was chosen on purpose at the time to attract people to work there. Other given names were Groom Lake, Water Town, and Dream Land. Giving the territory an enticing name like Paradise Ranch was important because initially the only entertainment available for workers there was a tennis court and a bowling alley. The tv and radio signals were strictly controlled in a way that only radio signals could make it through the mountains in the evening.

There is also a small town called Rachel, with an approximate population of 54 people, that lies off the course of Area 51 in Nevada and it is a haven for tourists inquisitive about the area and also alien fanatics. There are other interesting items to lure tourists, such as an Alien Research Centre, and an inn by the name of Little A’Le’Inn surrounding the town of Rachel. The highway that goes through the town was also renamed to the Extraterrestrial Highway in 1996.

Signboard at Highway 375, popularly known as Extraterrestrial Highway. (Cooper / Wikimedia Commons)

A display outside Little A’lee’inn. (Tim1337 / Wikimedia Commons)

It is certain that as much as we try to speculate, guess, and research on the subject, at some point we will have comfort ourselves with the fact that happenings with the area are going to remain confidential for a long period of time. As much as we want to satiate our curious nature, some questions remain unanswered.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Was Canada’s VZ-9 Avrocar Flying Saucer the UFOs That Were Seen on Earth?“.

Recommended Visit:
1. Alien Research Center | Tourist Attraction, Nevada, USA
2. Little A’Le’Inn | Hotel, Nevada, USA 

Fact Analysis:
STSTW Media strives to deliver accurate information through careful research. However, things can go wrong. If you find the above article inaccurate or biased, please let us know at [email protected].

The post Area 51: Is America Really Building UFO’s? appeared first on .

33 Thomas Street. (Billie Grace Ward / Flickr)

On Lower Manhattan in New York City, USA proudly stands the 170 meters tall 33 Thomas Street formerly the AT&T Long Lines Building. The building was designed by John Carl Warnecke and was completed after 5 years in 1974. The building was originally meant to be a telephone exchange & server center and was headquartered by AT&T. The Brutalist architecture style of the building does not attempt to hide the raw cement finish of the building by using decorative materials. The building was meant to hold electronic equipment and machinery. And because it was situated in a booming metropolitan city, the building could only grow vertically and not horizontally. The massive structure could have accommodated at least 60 residential floors, but since each floor is double-height at 20 feet each there are only 30 floors.

Since the sole purpose of the building was to hold machinery and not humans, the building has no windows. The windowless building helps keep a stable temperature of the room which is important while storing machinery. The machines would get wrecked as direct exposure to sunlight can affect their working. Sunlight from the windows would have further heated up the machines resulting in a short circuit or worse, caused a fire. Additionally, the windows would be useless to machines and an added advantage was that the building would be less susceptible to terrorist attacks as well as natural calamities.

The former AT&T Long Lines Building from a distant. (Dave Keeshan / Flickr)

33 Thomas Street: Design of the building

It is also important to note that the architect of the building, late John Warnecke, was a talented architect that the United States government had an immense amount of trust in. He has designed the US Naval Academy and the Hart Senate Office Building. He also helped in the reconstruction of a new embassy for the Soviet Union in Washington, D.C. Thanks to his father-in-law who had been a Director at an AT&T subsidiary; he was also trusted by telecommunications companies. His previous high-profile government projects and ties to the telecommunications company finally helped him get the project at 33 Thomas Street for AT&T.

1962: John Carl Warnecke discussing plans for Lafayette Square with First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy. (John F. Kennedy Presidential Library / National Archives)

The building is also designed to withhold nuclear fallout. It can hold up to 1500 people inside it including an emergency supply of food and water that can help them survive for 2 weeks. It also has about 200,000 gallons of fuel that would help power generators in case of a power outage. This project was initially codenamed, Project X.

Purpose of the building: NSA’s spy hub?

At one time, the building used to have the world’s largest long-distance phone call processing center. It used to provide approximately 170 calls in a day. The building now exists for a different purpose since AT&T shifted its headquarters a few blocks down the lane. Now it exists as a security data center and a surveillance site, codenamed TitanPointe, for the National Security Agency.

Long Lines Building up close. (Beyond My Ken /  Wikimedia Commons)

A couple of classified NSA documents sourced by The Intercept lead us to believe the relationship between Titan Pointe and 33 Thomas Street. The document mentions that Titan Pointe is located in New York City and that Lithium is the main source of contact for Titan Pointe. According to investigations carried out by The Intercept and information they received from former AT&T employees, it is clear that the codename Titan Pointe refers to the Long Lines Building and the codename Lithium refers to AT&T as a company.

It is highly likely that AT&T partners with the NSA to provide them with data only gained by tapping into phone calls between the United States and other countries. The opposite is also true in that there are documentaries that suggest that NSA equipment has been introduced within AT&T’s network to gain access to their data. Titan Pointe is also a part of another sub-project called Skidrowe that intercepts satellite signals.

It is only when investigations unearth information regarding government activity, do we begin to understand exactly how our privacy is being compromised. Until that happens, we breach the subject of confidentiality and privacy very lightly. Although government bodies may argue that violating the privacy of civilians is helpful for a bigger cause of national security. Some food for thought – where would you draw the line between privacy violation and securing the nation?

Recommended Visit:
AT&T Long Lines Building | New York, USA

Recommended Watch:
1. Citizen Four | A documentary on Edward Snowden and spying scandal involving the NSA.
2. Project X | Short film

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Nakagin Capsule Tower: A Futuristic Building from the Past, Which Might Just Not See the Future“.

Fact Analysis:
STSTW Media strives to deliver accurate information through careful research. However, things can go wrong. If you find the above article inaccurate or biased, please let us know at [email protected].

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Highgate Cemetery, England. (Panyd / Wikimedia Commons)

Highgate cemetery situated in North London, England is also a nature reserve. It came into existence in 1839 as London saw a massive boom in population during that time. It was one of the seven cemeteries, known as Magnificent Seven, to come into existence to bury the dead from the First and Second World Wars and is considered to be one of the most fashionable cemeteries. 

As the number of deaths reduced after the Second World War, the cemetery fell into a ruin. During it’s time being neglected, the cemetery became a sanctuary for birds and animals. It became home to over 40 species of birds, 20 species of butterflies, and certain forest creatures like spiders, foxes, badgers, and bats. Nature took over; ferns, mosses, and wildflowers were seen all over the place.

The cemetery has two sections, East & West side, West being the older of the two. The West side requires a tour guide and isn’t freely accessible to the public. It contains at least 70 popular gothic architecture including the Circle of Lebanon, Egyptian Avenue, and Terrace Catacomb. A lot of the architecture and trees have existed from well before the 19th century, for instance, a certain redwood tree has been there since the cemetery was initially designed.

Circle of Lebanon, Highgate Cemetery West. (Scott Wylie / Flickr)

Egyptian Avenue, Highgate Cemetery West. (JohnArmagh / Wikimedia Commons)

The newer East side is easily accessible to the public; people can request burials here and it is also open for self-guided tours. It has a gothic aesthetic with little paths that you can explore, weathered tombs, overhanging canopies of trees, and ivy-covered memorials. The cemetery began with a decent 17 acres, of which 2 acres were reserved for the burial of Non-Anglicans. The cemetery later became so popular that the property was extended by 20 acres on the East side.

Historic England

Eventually, in 1975, the cemetery went bankrupt. In the same year, a non-profit organization called The Friends of Highgate Cemetery was born to protect and preserve the blooming flora and fauna of the cemetery. After about a decade of the organization’s efforts to restore and conserve the cemetery, the cemetery was listed as Grade I under the Historic England Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest.

The Register lists all kinds of places like battlefields, monuments, buildings, parks, and burial grounds. Listing is done to preserve and protect sites to create awareness of spaces, their value and preservation. All sites included in the Register are protected legally, and to be included in the list it is mandatory to register with them. They also usually only list sites of particular importance to protect them. They pick sites such as gardens, grounds, and town squares, but sometimes even cemeteries and pumping stations are included if their landscaped designs are deemed protectable. 

Notable burials at Highgate Cemetery

The grave of Karl Marx, a German philosopher and revolutionary, used to be one of the most visited graves in London. He was initially buried in the East part of the cemetery but in the 1950s his grave was moved to the Westside. The tomb is made up of a bronze bust of Karl Marx set up on a marble pedestal, on it you can read the last few words of the Communist Manifesto written by the deceased. The cemetery not only acted as a makeshift shrine for Karl Marx for the longest time but also became a suitable spot for haters to attack via bombing like the attack that took place in 1970.

Grave of Karl Marx. (© nick macneill / geograph.org.uk)

The grave of Karl Marx was the most visited graves until recently when George Michael, an English singer and songwriter, was decided to be buried here next to his mother. Michael Faraday – electromagnetism scientist, George Eliot – Victorian novelist, Douglas Adams – science fiction author, and Rowland Hill – inventor of the postal system are some other notable people buried here.

The first person, Elizabeth Jackson of Little Windmill Street, was buried here on 26 May 1839. The cemetery is still functional and at least 30 plots are sold each year. Only people who are at least 80 years old and those that are terminally ill can request plots beforehand, for the rest of the people plots are only available for immediate use.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Ämari Pilots’ Cemetery: Where Aircraft Tail Fins Adorn Soviet Pilots’ Tombstones“.

Fact Analysis:
STSTW Media strives to deliver accurate information through careful research. However, things can go wrong. If you find the above article inaccurate or biased, please let us know at [email protected].

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Wimborne Chained Library. (ReflectedSerendipity / Flickr)

With the advent of e-readers, many in our generation are unaware of libraries. The concept of libraries was uncommon during the Middle Ages, circa 5th to 15th century. Back then books were chained to shelves in European libraries; to them, the concept of freely accessing books was just unusual. During that period, books were kept in book chests called almeries. These chests were kept in rooms that included valuables and hence, the rooms were always locked. The room wasn’t actually considered a library as we know it today, and visitors were not allowed to freely walk in and read the books.

As the demand for books increased during the beginning of the Renaissance period, institutions started using separate rooms to store books. One room would be used for books in common use, similar to a reference section in modern times, and another room for books in daily use. Institutions in that period had a loan system that allowed scholars to borrow books from them for a year at a time. This proved to be ineffective because other interested scholars would have to wait a whole year before they could read the book. In order to make books easily accessible to students, scholars, and commoners without any waiting period, institutions started chaining some valuable books and placing them in community libraries.

History of chained libraries

Sorbonne Library in France seems to be one of the first libraries in the late 13th century to have started the process of chaining books. Libraries determined the value of books on the basis of educational worth and not financial worth. It would have been ironic to chain financially valuable books because the process of chaining them was quite expensive. There were even some educationally valuable books that were kept under a triple key system so that readers would have to get permission from three separate officials.

Eventually, books were also chained to avoid books being stolen since books were very expensive to print back then. Once the printing press was introduced in 1450, the number of prints available of the same book increased significantly. This meant the value of books dropped drastically and made them less special, this eradicated the need for chaining books to the shelves.

Undated photo of Hereford Cathedral Chained Library. (pellethepoet / Flickr)

The process of chaining books

As for the process of chaining itself, the chains were not attached to the spine of the book but instead were attached either to the corner or the cover of the book. Attaching to the spine would cause unnecessary wear and tear while removing the book from the shelf.

Chained Bible at Hornby Library. (Rodhullandemu / Wikimedia Commons)

Due to this way of chaining, books were generally displayed the ‘wrong way’ with their spines not visible to the reader which would otherwise cause tangling of the chain. These chains would be long enough so that the readers could take the books to a table, but they were short enough so that the books would stay within the library itself.

In some libraries, there were benches available just below the shelves for readers to sit and read. In others, there were rows of seated lecterns. If a book ever needs to be removed from the chain, the librarian would use a key to remove the chain.

Some notable chained libraries

These days many libraries have given up chaining books, the few books that remain chained are done so for more of a vintage value than functional. However, off late, there seems to be a growing interest in restructuring chained libraries. There are a few chained libraries that are known to have survived with their original security systems still in place.

Hereford Cathedral Library is the largest chained library that is still in existence from the 17th century with its chains, rods, and locks still intact. Some old books are kept as manuscripts, and some of them contain ancient handwriting and illustrations in gold and colour. Some notable books here are the Hereford Gospels that were written in the 8th century and the Hereford Antiphonary written in the 13th century.

Hereford Cathedral Library. (Matthew Hartley / Wikimedia Commons)

The chained library in Wimborne Minster built in 1686 is the 2nd largest chained library in the UK that is still in existence. Another library is in the Church of Saint Walburga built in the 15th century. This library is now home to a museum that lets visitors look at the library’s original books and chains. Malatestiana Library in existence since the Italian Renaissance has undergone a significant amount of work to rebuild and preserve itself.

Contrary to what it might seem, libraries were trying to make books widely available to students and commoners by chaining them and not trying to restrict access. Chained libraries might have been in reducing printing cost and making sure books were available to more people at a time, but they were not very enjoyable. These libraries were often overcrowded and readers would be forced to sit very close to each other causing awkwardness. Many time readers would clump together to share one book. In these situations, it seemed like the readers were confined in one place and not the books.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “The Fascinating ‘Amber Room’: The Fabled ‘Eighth Wonder’ of the World“.

Recommended Visit:
1. Sorbonne Library | France
2. Hereford Cathedral | England
3. Wimborne Minister Chained Library | England

Fact Analysis:
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Aftermath of 2014 tsunami disaster in Sumatra, Indonesia. (Michael L. Bak / U.S. military)

On December 26, 2004, one of the most fatal natural disasters ever recorded in the 21st century, shook the core of our planet. An earthquake took place in the middle of the Indian Ocean which caused numerous tsunamis to hit the coastline of the ocean. The quake measured a powerful 9.3 on the Moment Magnitude Scale and a terrifying IX on the Mercalli intensity scale where XII means total destruction.

It caused a colossal amount of destruction and loss of life. 14 countries including Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand were affected, of which Banda Aceh, a city in Indonesia, was the most affected with more than 200,000 deaths. Smaller tremors were also felt in Bangladesh, Malaysia, Myanmar, and the Maldives. Contrary to what one might expect, not just the areas closest to the earthquake were affected. Tremors of the quake were felt in remote areas as far as Alaska which is over 10,000 km away from the epicentre.

The science behind the events

Seismologists were quite shocked at the unusualness of this earthquake. It took place just three days after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake rocked an uninhabited area between New Zealand and Australia. Earthquakes higher than 7 on a moment magnitude scale are known to occur only once per year. The impact of this earthquake was so intense that it is said to have vibrated our entire planet by as much as 1 cm. The quake also changed the speed of Earth’s rotation, causing a trivial shortage of 2.68 microseconds. The effects of the quake were reportedly felt for more than 4 months after it occurred.

This earthquake is termed as a ‘megathrust’ quake because they occur in subduction zones where one tectonic plate is forced below the other. These quakes are some of the most impactful ones where reaching a minimum of 9.0 on the moment magnitude scale is considered quite normal. This megathrust earthquake took place just below the sea causing the topmost layer of land in the deep sea to slide below the topmost layer of land in the shallow sea. The movement of tectonic plates was mostly vertical, however, some lateral movement of the plates was also detected. Due to this, some coastal areas have moved below sea level after the quake.

(Coinmanj / Wikimedia Commons)

Due to a massive amount of water being displaced during earthquakes, tsunamis are an expected part of the package. In this particular case, it was a shocker. Firstly, tsunamis are extremely rare in the Indian Ocean, despite the fact that earthquakes occur quite frequently in this subduction zone. Secondly, there are no warning systems that exist in the Indian Ocean since tsunamis occur more often in the Ring of Fire region of the Pacific Ocean. Although, it was quite lucky that two NASA satellites that were out on an oceanographic mission just happened to pass over the Indian Ocean and they have radars that help them measure and detect inconsistencies in the height of water waves. And lastly, there was a significant amount of time delay between the earthquake and tsunami. It took about 7 hours to reach the coastlines.

On another note, it is generally quite hard to detect tsunamis in deep water. The waves of a tsunami in deep water are barely noticeable and are just broad, shallow humps of water. These broad, shallow humps travel quite fast between approximately 500-1000  kmph. The behaviour of tsunami waves in shallow water changes; they reach great destructive heights but travel at much slower speeds of 90 kmph. The highest tsunami wave triggered during this event was recorded to be at a gigantic 30 m in shallow water but only 50 cm in deep water. 

Aftermath of 2004 Tsunami

Aerial photo of a village near the coast of Sumatra after the tsunami. (Philip A. McDaniel / U.S. Navy)

This earthquake is listed as one of the deadliest natural disasters to ever take place. This quake triggered the largest humanitarian response with people across the world donating more than USD 14 billion to the affected countries. The only other earthquakes that have been recorded larger than this on the Moment Magnitude Scale were the Alaskan Earthquake in 1964 with a magnitude of 9.2 and the Chilean Earthquake in 1960 with a magnitude of 9.6, although the number of casualties was nowhere close to the one in 2004.

There are accounts of saviours who recognized the events taking place and warned people in coastal areas to evacuate as soon as possible. One such account was of a 10-year-old girl who had learnt about tsunamis just 10 days earlier in school. She alerted her parents, who understood the gravity of the situation and quickly alerted coastal guards.

It is during such events that we truly understand the importance of just being alive. It is certainly frightening to imagine how nature is capable of near-complete destruction in a matter of seconds. In the blink of an eye, the planet lost 230,000 precious human lives on that day.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Krakatoa Volcano: An Earth-Shattering Explosion That Ruptured the Eardrums of Many“.

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US troops wading through the Omaha Beach. (Robert F. Sargent / National Archives and Records Administration)

The invasion of Normandy is a significant event that changed the course of World War II. It was the first time the Allied countries were able to threaten Germany’s control. For Europe, this would mean freedom from Nazi control, whereas for Hitler this would mean the beginning of the end of the Third Reich. This invasion was, and also impressively, still is the largest seaborne invasion in history.

The goal of the invasion was to liberate France and the rest of Western Europe from the German captors. Majority of the troops were from USA, UK and Canada and there were some troops from Poland, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, and the Netherlands. The invasion was being considered since America entered the war in 1942, and finally started being planned in August 1943 during the Tehran Conference in Iran.

Through eyes of the allies

Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower. (U.S. Army)

The invasion of Normandy, codenamed Operation Overlord, is the perfect exhibit of impeccable and thoughtful planning. The Allied countries, led by Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower, did not leave even the smallest detail unplanned.

They planned the day of their invasion in accordance with the phases of the moon; full moon would provide illumination during the night for aircraft and gliders, and it would also provide for the maximum tidal force during spring tides to reveal obstacles that the Germans would have placed for them.

The perfect day came on 6 June 1944, even though the weather on the days prior to it made it seem like the attack would have to be cancelled. The weather was in such a terrible state that many of the German troops and senior officers, including Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, were on leave because they believed that an attack would be impossible in these conditions.

Apart from planning the real invasion, Eisenhower also planned numerous deception tactics. Operation Fortitude was a deception strategy to convince German High Commander that the attack on Normandy was going to be purely diversionary by creating an appearance of attacks in different locations like Pas de Calais. Double cross agents were also employed to persuade the German High Commander of deceptive plans, and also to gather information from the inside. The work of these agents coupled with Operation Fortitude was very effective for their upcoming invasion.

Eisenhower also planned a rehearsal of the invasion, called Excercise Tiger, so that his troops could adjust their sight, smell, and sound to the naval bombardment. Due to a miscommunication regarding the timing of assault, at least 700 American men were sacrificed in friendly fire. Though this rehearsal did help solidify the mock plans and word of the agents. Another innovative deception they carried out was dropping dummies from aircraft that actually contained explosives. The meticulousness does not stop there, Eisenhower also made the troops practice blowing up professionally engineered replicas of defence items for months before the real invasion; all the intricate details of which they knew about from their cross agents.

The plan for the real invasion was to attack five of Normandy’s beaches. They were codenamed and assigned to a country for sea landings – Utah and Omaha assigned to USA, Sword and Gold assigned to the UK, and Juno assigned to Canada. The total number of troops that landed on D-day by air and sea combined were more than 150,000, this number increased to over 850,000 as the invasion continued. Thanks to the deceptive strategy played by the Allies, they faced very little defence on most of these beaches. Though, Omaha was a different story. The defence at Omaha was cruel; many of the soldiers didn’t even make it out of the boats because the Nazis line of attack was aimed at the front of the ship. Due to this type of aim, many of the soldiers in the front were hit as soon as the doors opened.

Aerial photo of Omaha beach during the invasion with American Liberty ships providing cover for the vessels unloading on the beach. (US National Archives)

Despite their meticulous planning the English Channel ended up being an obstacle for the troops due to which they had to tow in 2 fake harbours codenamed Operation Mulberry. They needed these ports to protect ships from the weather and to have a ready opportunity for ground transport. These harbours were built by more than 20,000 British workers working at full capacity. Even though the creation of these harbours proved to be a maritime challenge, they were built within 7 months.

Cargo being unloaded at Omaha beach on the first day of the assault. (United States Coast Guard)

Mistakes committed by Nazis

Erwin Rommel. (German Federal Archive)

Hitler was aware that there was a threat of invasion by the Allied countries, but he didn’t know where exactly they would strike. He put Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in-charge of defence systems. It is said that Rommel felt Germany should surrender as he believed they did not stand a chance against the Allies. He said that once the Allies had secured a beachhead, the war would be in their favour and hence wanted to stop the invasion at the beaches.

As part of their defence system, Rommel ordered the building of a 630 km Atlantic Wall all the way from Norway to the Spanish border. The series of fortifications kept at the Wall would have been quite effective had they not focused on building such a thick defence only at Pas de Calais, which they supposed was the focus of attack.

For the longest time, they believed that Normandy attacks were just a diversion and kept waiting for the attack to begin at Pas de Calais. It is true that the invasion details were kept a secret for the longest time because of which the Nazis were very underprepared; however, the Nazi troops among themselves were a disorganized mess too. The German commanders failed to react to the assault in a timely fashion and were a victim of miscommunication within themselves. Some German leaders were also bullied and had their decisions interfered by OKW, which is basically the High Command under Hitler. Their troop mostly comprised of prisoners who surrendered at the first available window.

The Atlantic Wall equipped with coastal guns. (German Federal Archives)

Invasion of Normandy aftermath

The invasion of Normandy was the first successful landing by the Allies in over 8 centuries, and also the largest defeat inflicted over Germans. The invasion successfully ended on 25 August 1944 with Germans surrendering to the Allies, without which the outcome of the War could have been different. There are multiple memorials that are built to preserve the memory of men lost in the battlefield. These beaches hold some of the largest British, American, Canadian, Polish, and German war memorials.

There are also remains from during the invasion that stands testament to the significance of this day. The beaches in Normandy are still referred to by their war code names, as are the streets near the beaches. Mulberry harbours, the fake harbours that were built by the Allies, are still present and functional too. A dummy paratrooper that was used by the Allies during mock rehearsals still hangs from a church spire. The Atlantic wall still stands mostly intact, and a lot of French History enthusiasts are focused on restoring it. The end of this invasion also marked the death of Adolf Hitler who committed suicide upon realizing that the war was lost for the Nazis.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Schwerer Gustav: Why the Largest Artillery Gun Turned Out to Be a Flop During World War II?“.

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The Paranal Observatory in Chile is protected with the dark-sky preserve status. (European Southern Observatory / Flickr)

An unconventional natural resource that we never considered preserving has been on the radar of a few organizations for some time. While we were busy protecting the land, air and water we started to lose focus on the sky. Luckily, someone recognized the need to preserve our night sky from light pollution, the International Dark-Sky Association (IDA).

The IDA is a not-for-profit organization started in the year 1988 with the express mission to protect and preserve areas of nocturnal skies to allow for uninterrupted astronomical observations. At least 700 sq. km. of land, called Dark-Sky Reserves, surrounding scientific observatories are preserved for this purpose.

Reserves are generally formed through long-term planning and a mutual agreement between landowners who understand the purpose of dark sky preservation. The purposes of the IDA are to reduce light pollution, encourage astro-tourism, and make a comfortable environment for nocturnal plants and animals.

What causes light pollution?

Light pollution usually occurs in metro cities because of the notion that brightly lit areas may have significantly lesser crime rates than dark areas. The Guardian reports that there is no such correlation between the two. There are different types of crimes, certain violent acts occur during dark hours whereas thefts and property acts also occur during the day. In fact, even the opposite might be true where studies have concluded that brighter areas are more prone to acts of vandalism and graffiti.

Another reason for light pollution is the fact that humans, as a species, are diurnal animals. Our visibility at night is significantly less than during the day, even though our ancestors lived their lives just fine with the available starlight. We use artificial light to help us drive cars, ride bicycles and carry on other nightly activities. To enable us to see better, we created brighter lights.

How does light pollution harm us?

It is true that the pollution caused by the misuse of artificial light can be reversed, however, its effects are not so. Light pollution causes an irrevocable damage to the ecosystem. It affects the circadian rhythm in humans, which is the biological clock that tells us when to sleep, when to wake up, and controls our mood and physical strength. Our body produces melatonin when we are asleep at night, and this hormone helps improve our immunity system. With a weaker immune system, we are more susceptible to diseases.

Humans responding to the circadian rhythm are called photobiology because we respond to light (and the lack of it). There are some plants that respond similarly to darkness (and the lack of it) and this response is called scotobiology. Since plants are affected by the colour and the duration of lighting, it affects their natural growth and just like humans, become more susceptible to diseases and infestations.

It becomes a bit more dangerous when light pollution also affects wildlife behaviour. Nocturnal animals usually use moonlight as a source of light while foraging for food, but now they are getting used to artificial light that is almost as bright as daylight. Their behaviours such as hunting prey, finding shadows to hide from predators, and carrying food back to their shelter instead of eating it in fields are affected by it. Neither finding a lot of prey than usual nor escaping from predators a lot more than usual is going to help the circle of life.

Other living things like insects are also affected by changing light patterns. There are certain insects that are attracted to light and the increased sources of artificial light distract them, thus affecting their mating and hunting activities.

Notable Dark-Sky Reserves

Stargazing in a city flashing with bright lights is next to impossible. Light pollution has limited the number of stars we can see with our naked eye to about a few hundred. Compare this to the many thousands that our ancestors used to look at to create astrological charts. But now, thanks to the efforts taken by the IDA and landowners, we now have 12 dark sky reserves worldwide where we can go to stargaze in a clear sky.

Covering an impressive area of 1300 sq. km., the Westhavelland reserve in Germany is one of the most notable ones. It’s big enough to be a tiny populated city. It’s fascinating because not only can you stargaze here, but you can also view other astronomical events like Aurora Borealis, zodiacal light – which is sunlight scattered by dust in space, and gegenschein – which is a zodiacal light seen at midnight.

Another reserve to note is the Kerry Dark Sky Reserve in Ireland. One of the most interesting features of this reserve is that it’s by the sea; you can listen to the sound of waves while you’re stargazing. Kerry reserve is also the first to be recognized under IDA’s Gold Tier status, which is a status reserved only for the darkest of skies.

Pic du Midi in France situated at a majestic 2877 meters above ground is a mountain in the French Pyrenees Range. The air up here is at its purest, and stars look so much closer than from the ground.

While light pollution may have degraded the sky quality in metro cities, it has helped us realize the value of the nocturnal sky, its components and the flora and fauna that survive due to it. Now when we stargaze, we’ll do it with an added realization that there are people who’ve never even seen the Milky Way.

Enjoyed this article? Also, check out “Ultima Thule: A Snowman-Shaped Celestial Body That is the Farthest Object a Space Probe Has Ever Captured“.

Recommended Visit:
Paranal Observatory | Chile

Fact Analysis:
STSTW Media strives to deliver accurate information through careful research. However, things can go wrong. If you find the above article inaccurate or biased, please let us know at [email protected].

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